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𝐹𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑙𝑑’𝑠𝑟𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑦 $4 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑦… [New Trading View Logo]( A note from the Editor: New Trading View is dedicated to providing readers like you with unique opportunities. The message below from one of our business associates is one we believe you should take a serious look at. [New Trading View Logo]( A note from the Editor: New Trading View is dedicated to providing readers like you with unique opportunities. The message below from one of our business associates is one we believe you should take a serious look at. Dear Reader, Five of the world’s richest men are all investing in [𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐲 $𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐲…]( That’s at the heart of an emerging trend Forbes reports is worth $𝟣𝟥𝟢 trillion. [𝐂𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐤 𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐲.]( Regards, Maria Bonaventura Senior Managing Editor, Rogue Economics   You are receiving our newsletter because you opted-in for it on one of our sister websites. Make sure you stay up to date with finance news by [whitelisting us](. Copyright © 2022 New Trading View.com All Rights Reserved[.]( 234 5th Ave, New York, NY 10001, United States [Privacy Policy]( l [Terms & Conditions]( Thinking about unsubscribing? We hope not! But, if you must, the link is below. [Unsubscribe]( The carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) is a root vegetable, typically orange in color, though purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist,[2][3][4] all of which are domesticated forms of the wild carrot, Daucus carota, native to Europe and Southwestern Asia. The plant probably originated in Persia and was originally cultivated for its leaves and seeds. The most commonly eaten part of the plant is the taproot, although the stems and leaves are also eaten. The domestic carrot has been selectively bred for its enlarged, more palatable, less woody-textured taproot. The carrot is a biennial plant in the umbellifer family, Apiaceae. At first, it grows a rosette of leaves while building up the enlarged taproot. Fast-growing cultivars mature within three months (90 days) of sowing the seed, while slower-maturing cultivars need a month longer (120 days). The roots contain high quantities of alpha- and beta-carotene, and are a good source of vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B6. Etymology A depiction labeled "garden" carrot from the Juliana Anicia Codex, a 6th-century AD Constantinopolitan copy of Dioscorides' 1st-century Greek pharmacopoeia. The facing page states that "the root can be cooked and eaten."[5] The word is first recorded in English circa 1530 and was borrowed from the Middle French carotte,[6] itself from the Late Latin carōta, from the ancient Greek καρωτόν karōtón), originally from the Proto-Indo-European root *ker- ('horn'), due to its horn-like shape. In Old English, carrots (typically white at the time) were not clearly distinguished from parsnips: the two were collectively called moru or more (from Proto-Indo-European *mork- 'edible root', cf. German Möhre or Russian морковь (morkov)).[citation needed] Various languages still use the same word for carrot as they do for root; e.g. the Dutch wortel.[7] History Both written history and molecular genetic studies indicate that the domestic carrot has a single origin in Central Asia.[2][3] Its wild ancestors probably originated in Persia (regions of which are now Iran and Afghanistan), which remains the centre of diversity for the wild carrot Daucus carota. A naturally occurring subspecies of the wild carrot was presumably bred selectively over the centuries to reduce bitterness, increase sweetness and minimise the woody core; this process produced the familiar garden vegetable.[8][9] When they were first cultivated, carrots were grown for their aromatic leaves and seeds rather than their roots. Carrot seeds have been found in Switzerland and Southern Germany dating back to 2000–3000 BC.[10] Some close relatives of the carrot are still grown for their leaves and seeds, such as parsley, cilantro, coriander, fennel, anise, dill and cumin. The first mention of the root in classical sources is from the 1st century AD;[11] the Romans ate a root vegetable called pastinaca,[12] which may have been either the carrot or the closely related parsnip.[13][14] The plant is depicted and described in the Eastern Roman Juliana Anicia Codex, a 6th-century AD Constantinopolitan copy of the Greek physician Dioscorides' 1st-century pharmacopoeia of herbs and medicines, De Materia Medica. Three different types[clarification needed] of carrots are depicted, and the text states that "the root can be cooked and eaten".[15] Another copy of this work, Codex Neapolitanes from late 6th or early 7th century, has basically the same illustrations but with roots in purple.[16] The plant was introduced into Spain by the Moors in the 8th century.[17] In the 10th century, roots from West Asia, India and Europe were purple.[18] The modern carrot originated in Afghanistan at about this time.[11] The 11th-century Jewish scholar Simeon Seth describes both red and yellow carrots,[19] as does the 12th-century Arab-Andalusian agriculturist, Ibn al-'Awwam.[20] Cultivated carrots appeared in China in the 12th century,[21] and in Japan in the 16th or 17th century.[22] There are many claims that Dutch growers created orange carrots in the 17th century to honor the Dutch flag at the time and William of Orange.[18][23] Other authorities argue these claims lack convincing evidence.[24] Modern carrots were described at about this time by the English antiquary John Aubrey (1626–1697): "Carrots were first sown at Beckington in Somersetshire. Some very old Man there [in 1668] did remember their first bringing hither."[25] European settlers introduced the carrot to colonial America in the 17th century.[26] Outwardly purple carrots, still orange on the inside, were sold in British stores beginning in 2002.[18] Description Seedlings shortly after germination Daucus carota is a biennial plant. In the first year, its rosette of leaves produces large amounts of sugars, which are stored in the taproot to provide energy for the plant to flower in the second year.[citation needed] Soon after germination, carrot seedlings show a distinct demarcation between taproot and stem: the stem is thicker and lacks lateral roots. At the upper end of the stem is the seed leaf. The first true leaf appears about 10–15 days after germination. Subsequent leaves are alternate (with a single leaf attached to a node), spirally arranged, and pinnately compound, with leaf bases sheathing the stem. As the plant grows, the bases of the seed leaves, near the taproot, are pushed apart. The stem, located just above the ground, is compressed and the internodes are not distinct. When the seed stalk elongates for flowering, the tip of the stem narrows and becomes pointed, and the stem extends upward to become a highly branched inflorescence up to 60–200 cm (20–80 in) tall.[27] Most of the taproot consists of a pulpy outer cortex (phloem) and an inner core (xylem). High-quality carrots have a large proportion of cortex compared to core. Although a completely xylem-free carrot is not possible, some cultivars have small and deeply pigmented cores; the taproot can appear to lack a core when the colour of the cortex and core are similar in intensity. Taproots are typically long and conical, although cylindrical and nearly-spherical cultivars are available. The root diameter can range from 1 cm (3⁄8 in) to as much as 10 cm (4 in) at the widest part. The root length ranges from 5 to 50 cm (2 to 20 in), although most are between 10 and 25 cm (4 and 10 in).[27] Daucus carota umbel (inflorescence). Individual flowers are borne on undivided pedicels originating from a common node. Top view of Daucus carota inflorescence, showing umbellets; the central flower is dark red. Flower development begins when the flat meristem changes from producing leaves to an uplifted, conical meristem capable of producing stem elongation and a cluster of flowers. The cluster is a compound umbel, and each umbel contains several smaller umbels (umbellets). The first (primary) umbel occurs at the end of the main floral stem; smaller secondary umbels grow from the main branch, and these further branch into third, fourth, and even later-flowering umbels.[27] A large, primary umbel can contain up to 50 umbellets, each of which may have as many as 50 flowers; subsequent umbels have fewer flowers. Individual flowers are small and white, sometimes with a light green or yellow tint. They consist of five petals, five stamens, and an entire calyx. The stamens usually split and fall off before the stigma becomes receptive to receive pollen. The stamens of the brown, male, sterile flowers degenerate and shrivel before the flower fully opens. In the other type of male sterile flower, the stamens are replaced by petals, and these petals do not fall off. A nectar-containing disc is present on the upper surface of the carpels.[27] Flowers consist of five petals, five stamens, and an entire calyx. Flowers change sex in their development, so the stamens release their pollen before the stigma of the same flower is receptive. The arrangement is centripetal, meaning the oldest flowers are near the edge and the youngest flowers are in the center. Flowers usually first open at the outer edge of the primary umbel, followed about a week later on the secondary umbels, and then in subsequent weeks in higher-order umbels.[27] The usual flowering period of individual umbels is 7 to 10 days, so a plant can be in the process of flowering for 30–50 days. The distinctive umbels and floral nectaries attract pollinating insects. After fertilization and as seeds develop, the outer umbellets of an umbel bend inward causing the umbel shape to change from slightly convex or fairly flat to concave, and when cupped it resembles a bird's nest.[27] Carrots in Ljubljana Central Market The fruit that develops is a schizocarp consisting of two mericarps; each mericarp is a true seed. The paired mericarps are easily separated when they are dry. Premature separation (shattering) before harvest is undesirable because it can result in seed loss. Mature seeds are flattened on the commissural side that faced the septum of the ovary. The flattened side has five longitudinal ribs. The bristly hairs that protrude from some ribs are usually removed by abrasion during milling and cleaning. Seeds also contain oil ducts and canals. Seeds vary somewhat in size, ranging from less than 500 to more than 1000 seeds per gram.[27] The carrot is a diploid species, and has nine relatively short, uniform-length chromosomes (2n=18).[2][3] The genome size is estimated to be 473 mega base pairs, which is four times larger than Arabidopsis thaliana, one-fifth the size of the maize genome, and about the same size as the rice genome.[28] Chemistry β-Carotene structure. Carotene is responsible for the orange colour of carrots and many other fruits and vegetables. Polyacetylenes can be found in Apiaceae vegetables like carrots where they show cytotoxic activities.[29][30] Falcarinol and falcarindiol (cis-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diyne-3,8-diol)[31] are such compounds. This latter compound shows antifungal activity towards Mycocentrospora acerina and Cladosporium cladosporioides.[31] Falcarindiol is the main compound responsible for bitterness in carrots.[32] Other compounds such as pyrrolidine (present in the leaves),[33] 6-hydroxymellein,[34] 6-methoxymellein, eugenin, 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzaldehyde (gazarin) or (Z)-3-acetoxy-heptadeca-1,9-diene-4,6-diin-8-ol (falcarindiol 3-acetate) can also be found in carrot.[citation needed] Cultivation Workers harvesting carrots, Imperial Valley, California, 1948 Carrots are grown from seed and can take up to four months (120 days) to mature, but most cultivars mature within 70 to 80 days under the right conditions.[35] They grow best in full sun but tolerate some shade.[36] The optimum temperature is 16 to 21 °C (61 to 70 °F).[37] The ideal soil is deep, loose and well-drained, sandy or loamy, with a pH of 6.3 to 6.8.[38] Fertilizer should be applied according to soil type because the crop requires low levels of nitrogen, moderate phosphate and high potash. Rich or rocky soils should be avoided, as these will cause the roots to become hairy and/or misshapen.[39] Irrigation is applied when needed to keep the soil moist. After sprouting, the crop is eventually thinned to a spacing of 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) and weeded to prevent competition beneath the soil.[35][40] Cultivation problems See also: List of carrot diseases There are several diseases that can reduce the yield and market value of carrots. The most devastating carrot disease is Alternaria leaf blight, which has been known to eradicate entire crops. A bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas campestris can also be destructive in warm, humid areas. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species) can cause stubby or forked roots, or galls.[41] Cavity spot, caused by the oomycetes Pythium violae and Pythium sulcatum, results in irregularly shaped, depressed lesions on the taproots.[42] Physical damage can also reduce the value of carrot crops. The two main forms of damage are splitting, whereby a longitudinal crack develops during growth that can be a few centimetres to the entire length of the root, and breaking, which occurs postharvest. These disorders can affect over 30% of commercial crops. Factors associated with high levels of splitting include wide plant spacing, early sowing, lengthy growth durations, and genotype.[43] Companion planting Carrots benefit from strongly scented companion plants. The pungent odour of onions, leeks and chives help repel the carrot root fly,[38] and other vegetables that team well with carrots include lettuce, tomatoes and radishes, as well as the herbs rosemary and sage.[44] Carrots thrive in the presence of caraway, coriander, chamomile, marigold and Swan River daisy.[38] They can also be good companions for other plants; if left to flower, the carrot, like any umbellifer, attracts predatory wasps that kill many garden pests.[45] Cultivars Carrot seeds Seeds of Daucus carota subsp. maximus – MHNT Carrot cultivars can be grouped into two broad classes: "Eastern" carrots and "Western" carrots.[46] A number of novelty cultivars have been bred for particular characteristics.[2][3] "Eastern" (a European and American continent reference) carrots were domesticated in Persia (probably in the lands of modern-day Iran and Afghanistan within West Asia) during the 10th century, or possibly earlier. Specimens of the Eastern carrot that survive to the present day are commonly purple or yellow, and often have branched roots. The purple colour common in these carrots comes from anthocyanin pigments.[47] The "Western" carrot emerged in the Netherlands in the 17th century.[48] There is a popular belief that its orange colour made it popular in those countries as an emblem of the House of Orange and the struggle for Dutch independence, although there is little evidence for this.[24][23] The orange colour results from abundant carotenes in these cultivars. Western carrot cultivars are commonly classified by their root shape. The four general types are: Chantenay carrots. Although the roots are shorter than other cultivars, they have vigorous foliage and greater girth, being broad in the shoulders and tapering towards a blunt, rounded tip. They store well, have a pale-coloured core and are mostly used for processing.[40] Cultivars include 'Carson Hybrid' and 'Red Cored Chantenay'. Danvers carrots. These have strong foliage and the roots are longer than Chantenay types, and they have a conical shape with a well-defined shoulder, tapering to a point. They are somewhat shorter than Imperator cultivars, but more tolerant of heavy soil conditions. Danvers cultivars store well and are used both fresh and for processing.[40] They were developed in 1871 in Danvers, Massachusetts.[49] Cultivars include 'Danvers Half Long' and 'Danvers 126'. Imperator carrots. This cultivar has vigorous foliage, is of high sugar content, and has long and slender roots, tapering to a pointed tip. Imperator types are the most widely cultivated by commercial growers.[40] Cultivars include 'Imperator 58' and 'Sugarsnax Hybrid'. Nantes carrots. These have sparse foliage, are cylindrical, short with a more blunt tip than Imperator types, and attain high yields in a range of conditions. The skin is easily damaged and the core is deeply pigmented. They are brittle, high in sugar and store less well than other types.[40] Cultivars include 'Nelson Hybrid', 'Scarlet Nantes' and 'Sweetness Hybrid'. Carrot breeding programs have developed new cultivars to have dense amounts of chemically-stable acylated pigments, such as anthocyanins, which enrich carrot color based on the density and types of anthocyanin to produce different carrot colors.[2][3] One particular cultivar lacks the usual orange pigment due to carotene, owing its white colour to a recessive gene for tocopherol (vitamin E), but this cultivar and wild carrots do not provide nutritionally significant amounts of vitamin E.[50] Production Carrot and turnip* production – 2020 Country (Millions of tonnes) China 18.1 Uzbekistan 2.9 United States 1.6 Russia 1.4 Indonesia 0.7 Kazakhstan 0.6 Japan 0.6 World 41 * carrots and turnips combined Source: FAOSTAT of the UN[51] In 2020, world production of carrots (combined with turnips) was 41 million tonnes, with China producing 44% of the world total (table).[51] Other major producers were Uzbekistan and the United States.[51] Storage Carrots can be stored for several months in the refrigerator or over winter in a moist, cool place. For long term storage, unwashed carrots can be placed in a bucket between layers of sand, a 50/50 mix of sand and wood shavings, or in soil. A temperature range of 0 to 4 °C (32 to 40 °F) and 98% humidity is best.[52][53] During storage, carrots may be subject to the development of bitterness, white blush, and browning, leading to carrot losses.[54] Bitterness can be prevented by storage in well-ventilated rooms with low ethylene content (for example, without ethylene-producing fruit and vegetables). White blush and browning can be countered with application of edible films, heat treatment, application of hydrogen sulfide, and ultraviolet irradiation.[54] Consumption Carrots in a range of colours Carrots can be eaten in a variety of ways. Only 3 percent of the β-carotene in raw carrots is released during digestion: this can be improved to 39% by pulping, cooking and adding cooking oil.[55] Alternatively they may be chopped and boiled, fried or steamed, and cooked in soups and stews, as well as baby and pet foods. A well-known dish is carrots julienne.[56] Together with onion and celery, carrots are one of the primary vegetables used in a mirepoix to make various broths.[57] The greens are edible as a leaf vegetable,[58][59] but are rarely eaten by humans;[60] some sources suggest that the greens contain toxic alkaloids.[61][62] When used for this purpose, they are harvested young in high-density plantings, before significant root development, and typically used stir-fried, or in salads.[60] Some people are allergic to carrots. In a 2010 study on the prevalence of food allergies in Europe, 3.6 percent of young adults showed some degree of sensitivity to carrots.[63] Because the major carrot allergen, the protein Dauc c 1.0104, is cross-reactive with homologues in birch pollen (Bet v 1) and mugwort pollen (Art v 1), most carrot allergy sufferers are also allergic to pollen from these plants.[64] In India carrots are used in a variety of ways, as salads or as vegetables added to spicy rice or dal dishes. A popular variation in north India is the Gajar Ka Halwa carrot dessert, which has carrots grated and cooked in milk until the whole mixture is solid, after which nuts and butter are added.[65] Carrot salads are usually made with grated carrots with a seasoning of mustard seeds and green chillies popped in hot oil. Carrots can also be cut in thin strips and added to rice, can form part of a dish of mixed roast vegetables or can be blended with tamarind to make chutney.[66] Since the late 1980s, baby carrots or mini-carrots (carrots that have been peeled and cut into uniform cylinders) have been a popular ready-to-eat snack food available in many supermarkets.[67] Carrots are puréed and used as baby food, dehydrated to make chips, flakes, and powder, and thinly sliced and deep-fried, like potato chips.[68] The sweetness of carrots allows the vegetable to be used in some fruit-like roles. Grated carrots are used in carrot cakes, as well as carrot puddings, an English dish thought to have originated in the early 19th century.[69] Carrots can also be used alone or blended with fruits in jams and preserves. Carrot juice is also widely marketed, especially as a health drink, either stand-alone or blended with juices extracted from fruits and other vegetables.[70] Highly excessive consumption over a period of time can result in carotenemia, a yellow-orange discoloration of the skin caused by a build up of carotenoids.[71] Nutrition Night vision The provitamin A β-carotene from carrots does not actually help people to see in the dark unless they suffer from vitamin A deficiency.[76] This myth was propaganda used by the Royal Air Force during the Second World War to explain why British pilots had improved night vision which enabled their success during nighttime air battles.[77] Nevertheless, the consumption of carrots was advocated in Britain at the time as part of a Dig for Victory campaign. A radio programme called The Kitchen Front encouraged people to grow, store and use carrots in various novel ways, including making carrot jam and Woolton pie, named after the Lord Woolton, the Minister for Food.[78] The British public during WWII generally believed that eating carrots would help them see better at night and in 1942 there was a 100,000-ton surplus of carrots from the extra production.[79] The cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) is a medium-sized moth in the family Noctuidae, a family commonly referred to as owlet moths. Its common name comes from its preferred host plants and distinctive crawling behavior. Cruciferous vegetables, such as cabbage, bok choy, and broccoli, are its main host plant; hence, the reference to cabbage in its common name.[1] The larva is called a looper because it arches its back into a loop when it crawls.[2] While crucifers are preferred, over 160 plants can serve as hosts for the cabbage looper larvae.[3] The adult cabbage looper is a migratory moth that can be found across North America and Eurasia, as far south as Florida and as far north as British Columbia. Its migratory behavior and wide range of host plants contribute to its broad distribution. The cabbage looper larva is a minor vegetable pest, especially for crucifers. While it is not significantly destructive, it is becoming difficult to manage due to its broad distribution and resistance to many insecticides.[1][2] Numerous methods are being researched in order to control this species. Taxonomy The cabbage looper larva is a type of cabbage worm, a general term for a Lepidopteran pest that primarily feeds on crucifers. They closely resemble each other, in that they are all smooth and green, but they are not closely related in terms of phylogeny. In fact, none of the cabbage worms bear close phylogenetic relations, as they are all from different families.[2] The cabbage looper is a member of the family Noctuidae, one of the largest families in Lepidoptera.[4] It is related to other vegetable pests, like the cutworm and armyworms.[1] Reproduction and life cycle Mating When ready to mate, cabbage loopers display by elevating their abdomen and fanning their wings. Males also fan out their abdominal hairs, open their genital claspers, and partially stick out their spermatophores. Males gradually expose more of their spermatophores as they wait for a mate. Upon interest, a potential mate examines the other's abdomen with antennae, and mating occurs if both agree.[5] Mating on average occurs at 2am, but has been observed occurring between 12 and 4am.[6] Mating generally occurs 3–4 days after emergence, but can occur up to 16 days afterwards. Usually, mating does not occur before the third day, as eggs are not fully developed upon emergence and require a few days to reach maturity.[3] Multiple matings is a mating strategy where individuals have multiple mates in their lifetime. This is in contrast to monogamy, where individuals have one mate for life. Mating multiply can be advantageous to both sexes, which is why this strategy has evolved in many species, including the cabbage looper. For female cabbage loopers, rate of oviposition increases with the number of matings, and ultimately lay more eggs total. While it was once believed that multiple matings were necessary to fertilize all eggs, evidence shows that only one mating is needed to fertilize almost all eggs. Instead, it is more likely that the spermatophore provides nutrients to the female that confers reproductive benefits. This may explain why males produce female-attracting pheromones, as females may be seeking nutrient-rich spermatophores. For male cabbage loopers, multiple matings did not affect the quality of their spermatophores, suggesting that they can maximize reproductive opportunities without decreasing fecundity.[7] Sexual role reversal Conventional mate-finding strategy involves males seeking and competing for females and females caring for offspring. In many animals, however, the opposite occurs, where the females competes for males and males care for young. This role reversal can occur for a variety of reasons: environmental conditions, timing of fertilization, and biased sex ratios. For example, male fish often provide more parental care because, after females lay their eggs, males have to ensure that their sperm fertilizes the eggs and does not get washed away. It may be beneficial for the female to lay more eggs instead of caring for the eggs, so she departs as the male fertilizes the eggs, leaving him to care for the eggs.[8] The cabbage looper generally utilizes typical mating strategies, in that males compete for females. However, occasionally the reverse occurs, where females will seek males. This only happens under particular selection conditions, such as a shortage of males or host plants that bias the sex ratio towards females.[9] Oviposition After mating, the female seeks a host plant and lays her eggs, also known as oviposition. Oviposition actually can occur without mating, even as early as just after emergence from the pupa. However, oviposition right after emergence is futile, because the eggs do not mature in the female until the third day of adulthood, and therefore are not fertile until then.[3][5] Host plant of choice for oviposition will depend on larval experience, known as learned host behavior. Moths unfamiliar with a host plant will avoid ovipositing on that plant and instead preferentially oviposit on a familiar host, even if the familiar host produces unappetizing chemicals. This demonstrates that larvae and moths develop host preferences and that the species is slow to determine whether a plant chemical is toxic, given that the larva is not immediately turned off by the unappetizing chemicals.[10] This choice is also influenced by insect waste, also known as larval frass, as its presence serves as a chemical deterrent for potential mothers. Larval frass indicates that the site is already occupied, therefore avoiding overcrowding.[11] Life cycle Egg The cabbage looper eggs are generally yellow-white in color, dome-shaped, and patterned with ridges. They are 0.6mm in diameter and 0.4mm in height, and they are usually laid singly on the underside of leaves.[10] In one day, 40–50 females can lay 1000–2000 viable eggs. Viable eggs hatch after about three days, while unviable eggs fail to develop and collapse within that period.[12] Eggs are mostly found on leaves that are both larger and higher on the plant. It is not clear why eggs are preferentially laid on these leaves.[13] Larva Larva Cabbage looper larvae are a type of cabbage worm, green in colour with a white stripe on the side. After hatching, they are green and slightly hairy, but eventually turn green and lose the hair, leaving only a few bristles. They are identified by their looping behaviour, in which they arch their body in a loop when they crawl. Larvae are generally 3–4 cm long, and can have four to seven instars within 9–14 days.[1] Larvae initially do not consume much food but increase their consumption during their lifetime until they are consuming three times their weight daily.[12] Pupa Pupa When they pupate, they attach to the undersides of leaves and form a silky cocoon.[2] This stage can last 4–13 days, depending on the temperature of the environment.[1] Male pupae are slightly larger than female.[12] Adult The adult form is a moth with gray-brown front wings and light brown back wings. It is about 2.5 cm long and has a wingspan of 3.8 cm. Because they are nocturnal, adults spend their days protected by their host plants and begin activity 30 minutes before sunset.[1] Males can be distinguished from females by light brown hairs that lie flat against their abdomen.[5] Mating occurs 3 or 4 days after metamorphosis, during which 300–1400 eggs are oviposited.[3] From egg to adulthood, the cabbage looper's life cycle is generally 24–33 days long.[10] Distribution and migration The cabbage looper can be found across North America and Eurasia, as far south as Florida and as far north as British Columbia.[14] Cabbage looper populations in North America migrate from Mexico to Canada, depending on the seasons. It generally overwinters in Mexico or southern California, where temperatures are above 16 °C (61 °F) even during winter. It used to be frequently found in Florida, but this has lessened due to fewer cabbage crops.[14] As northern regions of North America grow warmer, the cabbage looper gradually moves upward, only migrating if the region is above 16 °C (61 °F).[15] During summer, it is less commonly found in southern regions, due to high temperatures. Similar to the monarch butterfly, populations presumably migrate in groups, as there is little genetic difference between source and migrating populations.[16] Similar seasonal distributions were found in Europe. There, the cabbage looper can be found from England to southeastern Europe.[15] Temperature The cabbage looper migration patterns are highly temperature dependent, as temperature can impact development. It has the greatest impact on pupation, where pupae often cease to finish metamorphosis if grown at 10 °C (50 °F). Even if pupae are transferred from 10 °C to 12.7 °C (54.86 °F), they often emerge deformed, sometimes developing an extra instar. Temperatures above 35 °C (95 °F) also result in physical deformations in adults, such as poor wing development. Mating and flight are negatively impacted by temperatures above 32 °C (89.6 °F) and below 16 °C, which may explain why cabbage loopers migrate to northern regions once temperatures reach 16 °C.[15] The time between female calling and male response increases as temperature increases, but when the temperature reaches 27 °C (80.6 °F), mating increases. At the same time, oviposition and longevity decrease, with hatching almost ceasing at 32 °C.[3] The embryo itself is actually quite resilient, as it is able to develop at 10 °C and at 40 °C (104 °F). However, although it is developed, it is unable to hatch.[17] Temperature does not affect the pheromone-sensitive receptor neurons.[18] Host plants The cabbage looper is a generalist insect that can reside and feed on over 160 host plants. The looper's variety of hosts is partially due to the ability of its salivary glands to differentially express based on the host. For example, cabbage and tomato plants use defensive strategies involving different compounds, and the cabbage looper can combat either by upregulating the appropriate genes. The gland's high responsiveness to the diet allows for considerable flexibility in host plants. The cabbage looper's preferred hosts are crucifers such as cabbage and broccoli, because it grows faster on these plants, possibly due to nutritional or chemical differences.[19] Tobacco can also be a host for the cabbage looper. However, it is not preferred because gummosis, a gummy substance produced by some plants, and trichomes, hair-like appendages, harm early larvae survival. Older larvae are more resistant to these defenses.[20] The number of caterpillars on a plant can depend on a plant's maturity. Cabbages that mature early are less attractive, whereas cabbages just beginning to head are the most attractive. Among crucifers, there generally seems to be no preference for one specific type of crucifer, like kale over cabbage or broccoli over brussels sprouts. The only apparent preference is for red cabbage – nearby double the number of caterpillars were present on the red cabbage compared to the green. This suggests that the number of caterpillars on a host plant has less to do with the species of host than with the host's height and foliage.[21] Attraction to odors Cabbage loopers detect plant odors to locate food resources and suitable host plants for laying eggs, thereby increasing their chances for survival and reproduction. Mated females respond faster to plant odors compared to their unmated female and male counterparts. This difference in response time may be a result of mated females needing host plants for both food and egg laying whereas unmated individuals mostly use host plants for food, so mated females have greater motivations to find a host plant.[22] The cabbage looper is attracted to the floral compounds: phenylacetaldehyde methyl salicylate 2-phenylethanol benzaldehyde benzyl alcohol benzyl acetate methyl-2-methoxy benzoate Although the strongest attractor is phenylacetaldehyde, the cabbage looper is more attracted to a blend of odors than phenylacetaldehyde alone.[23][24] Pheromones Biosynthesis Similar to other pheromone biosynthesis reactions, female cabbage looper pheromone production initiates with synthesis of 16 and 18-carbon fatty acids. This is followed by desaturation at C1 and chain shortening by two or four carbons. Finally, the fatty acid is reduced and acetylated to form an acetate ester. The result is a blend of different female pheromone compounds at a consistent ratio. This ratio can be highly altered by mutations in chain shortening proteins, demonstrating that the chain shortening step is important for determining the ratio of pheromones in the final blend.[25] As a species, the cabbage looper does not hormonally regulate pheromone production. Stage specific proteins correspond to the development of the pheromone gland. The immature gland lacks numerous enzymes crucial to pheromone biosynthesis, such as fatty acid synthetase and acetyltransferase, which is why the looper cannot produce pheromones prior to the adult stage. Upon complete development of the pheromone glands at the adult stage, pheromones are constantly produced.[26] Male pheromones d-linalool m-cresol p-cresol Although males engage in mate searching behavior more often than females, male cabbage loopers also produce pheromones from the hair pencils on the abdomen.[9] Different blends of pheromones serve as competitive advantages for mating, as certain pheromone components are more appealing to females than others. Cresol is important for attractiveness to females, while linalool is found in floral odors and is believed to attract individuals searching for nutrients.[27] Males around host plants are more attractive to females, because plant odor enhances the attractiveness of the male pheromone. This is advantageous to females because it helps with mate choice, as plant odor-enhanced males are more likely to be near a host plant. The male pheromone may also be related to food-finding behavior, as both males and females are more attracted to the male pheromone when starving.[28] Although there is no direct evidence demonstrating that males release pheromones in response to host plant odor, it is highly possible this behavior occurs, and that the lack of evidence is due to either the choice of host plant or the experimental setup.[29] Female pheromones cis-7-dodecenyl acetate cis-5-dodecenyl acetate 11-dodecenyl acetate cis-7-tetradecenyl acetate cis-9-tetradecenyl acetate dodecyl acetate[30] Cabbage loopers are unique in that both females and males release pheromones in order to seek a mate. Generally, females release pheromones from the tips of their abdomens, and males seek females upon detection.[3][6] Females around host plants are more attractive to males, possibly because females release more pheromones in the presence of host plant odor. Although it is not clear why host plant odors incite female pheromone production, this response may help reduce time wasted spent searching for a mate and therefore increase the chance of mating.[29] Female cabbage loopers usually attract the male, as females have more to lose by spending energy and time on searching for a mate.[9] Detection Cabbage loopers possess olfactory receptor neurons on their antennae for detecting pheromones. The neurons are specifically located on two sensory structures called sensilla that differ in length and pore density. Male loopers have two types of neurons, and depending on which sensilla that are present, the neurons will detect female pheromones at varying sensitivities to each of the six pheromones. The neurons are most sensitive to the main component of the female pheromone blend, cis-7-dodecenyl acetate, and the male inhibitory signal, cis-7-dodecenol. The presence of cis-7-dodecenyl acetate is crucial for male response to female pheromones, as it is 80% of the entire blend. The base region of the antennae, where receptor neurons for this pheromone are located, has more sensory structures than the ends. The base region is also less likely to experience damage, showing the importance of detecting the pheromone.[31] It is not clear why male neurons detect the inhibitory compound, as there is no evidence showing that females produce this compound. One possibility is that its presence in the female pheromone blend may be too small to be detected by scientific equipment.[32] The inhibitory signal only elicits a response when delivered alongside female pheromones to avoid mixing signals from other species, suggesting that while it cannot be detected in the female pheromone blend, it has an important role in female detection.[33] These neurons are also capable of recognizing and responding to cis-7-tetradecenyl acetate and cis-9-tetradecenyl acetate. There are no specialized neurons for the other three pheromones.[31] Instead, these minor pheromones can cross-stimulate neurons, which is why partial blends that lack one or two of the minor pheromones can still fully stimulate the male receptors.[34] [New Trading View Logo]( You are receiving our newsletter because you opted-in for it on one of our sister websites. Make sure you stay up to date with finance news by [whitelisting us](. 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