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[Cliсk hеre to gеt the details and learn how to prepare.]( Regards, Andrew Packer Analyst, Palm Beach Letter na Blackburne (baptised Anne Blackburne, 1726 – 30 December 1793) was an English naturalist who had an extensive collection of natural history specimens and corresponded with several notable naturalists of her era. Blackburne was born at Orford Hall, Orford, Warrington, Lancashire, into a family of landowners and merchants. After her mother's death, she lived at Orford with her father John Blackburne, who was known for his interest in botany and his hothouses for exotic plants. John Blackburne also had an extensive library where Anne likely studied botany; she later learned Latin to read the Systema Naturae of Carl Linnaeus. Blackburne collected insects, shells, minerals and birds. She regularly met with the naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster while he was teaching at Warrington Academy. Forster instructed her in entomology and helped with her insect collection. Blackburne corresponded with other naturalists including Linnaeus, to whom she sent a box of birds and insects. Her brother Ashton, who lived in Nw York, sent her specimens of North American birds. Thomas Pennant studied these birds in Blackburne's collection and included them in his book Arctic Zoology. Another source for Blackburne's collection was her exchange with Peter Simon Pallas in St. Petersburg, from whom she obtained mostly plants, birds, and minerals. After her father's death, Blackburne and her museum moved to nearby Fairfield Hall. After her 1793 death, her nephew John Blackburne inherited the collection. Several species are named after Blackburne, including the beetle Geotrupes blackburnii, the Blackburnian warbler and the Blackburnia pinnata, no called Zanthoxylum pinnatum. Family background and early lie Blackburne was born in 1726 at Orford Hall, Warrington, as the fifth of nine children of John Blackburne (1693–1786) and Katharine Ashton or Assheton (1701–1740).[1][2][a][b] Her maternal grandfather was William Assheton, Rector of Prestwich.[6] She was baptised as "Anne" on 3 January 1726, but was usually known as "Anna".[7][8][9] Her family were landowners who had lived at Orford Hall since 1638.[10] Her family also owned merchant ships and were also involved in foreign trade with Russia and with salt production in Cheshire and at Salthouse Dock in Liverpool.[11] John Blackburne was interested in botany and had a large collection of plants in his garden. In his coal-fired hothouses, he grew exotic plants including pineapples and cotton. Some of this cotton was noted to have been made into a muslin dress for his daughter.[9][12] Little is known about Anna's formal education,[2] but she may have used the natural history books in her father's library to study botany during her childhood.[13] In the years following her mother's death, Anna's surviving siblings left Orford Hall; eventually, oly Anna and her father remained.[2] Her brother John was a businessman who served as mayor of Liverpool in 1760–61 and was involved in the slave trade before 1758;[14] her brother Ashton lived in ew York,[9] from where he sent bird specimens to his sister.[15] Anna Blackburne eventually became the mistress of the manor and referred to herself as "Mrs. Blackburne" although she nevr married; the title "Mrs." was customarily used also by unmarried ladies of the 18th century.[2] Association with other naturalists Blackburne was keenly interested in natural history. She was in contact with several well-known naturalists, and some of them visited her and her father at Orford Hall.[8][16] She learned Latin and studied the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus.[17] Occasionally, Blackburne visited London and Oxford;[18] on one such visit to the botanical garden at Oxford, she debated with the gardeners and surprised the bystanders with the extent of her botanical knowledge.[19] She collected various natural history specimens including insects, shells, minerals and birds.[8] In the early years of her collection, she obtained most of her specimens from her widely travelled family members.[20] Johann Reinhold Forster One of the naturalists who visited the Blackburnes was Johann Reinhold Forster, who in 1767 had been appointed as tutor in modern languages and natural history at Warrington Academy as the replacement to Joseph Priestley.[21] Forster's scientific lectures at Warrington covered biology, entomology and mineralogy.[22] In 1768, Forster dined at Orford Hall every Saturday, helped Blackburne with the arrangement of her insect collection, and presented his lectures on entomology to her.[22][23] Blackburne allowed Forster to use the family's library,[24] and encouraged Forster to publish his work.[25][22] For his frind Thomas Pennant, another naturalist, Forster unsuccessfully tried to obtain duplicates of shells in her collection.[22] Until he moved to London in 1770, Forster and Blackburne had a mutually beneficial relationship. While she received education, he benefitted from their social relationship and her library. Forster even expected Blackburne to oder books for him.[26][24] The text "Tetrandria Monogynia" and "6. Blackburnia" above ten engravings of botanical details Blackburnia (Zanthoxylum pinnatum), engraving of botanical drawings by Georg Forster, from Characteres generum plantarum Forster later took part in the second voyage of James Cook as the expedition's naturalist.[27][28] After his return, he and his son Georg published some of the botanical results of the voyage in the book Characteres generum plantarum.[29] Anna Blackburne received one of the small number of folio copies, which were given by the Forsters as presents to royalty as well as friends and supporters.[30][c] Forster dedicated one genus to Blackburne and her father, Blackburnia, including Blackburnia pinnata, nw called Zanthoxylum pinnatum.[32] In the dedication, Forster mentioned John's garden and Anna's collections, thanking both for allowing him to use their "most informative museum".[8] Carl Linnaeus On 29 June 1771, Blackburne wrote to the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus, offering to send him "a few Birds & insects" collected by her brother Ashton near ew species after her if she gave him an unknown specimen.[34] In response, Blackburne sent "a small box containing a few Birds and insects".[19] These three letters are ll that is known of their correspondence. The clais in her obituary that Blackburne was a "frend and constant correspondent of Linnaeus" or that he named a plant after her are inaccurate.[5][35] Linnaeus's student Johan Christian Fabricius visited Orford Hall, where he examined her collection of insects, and found a nw species of beetle. He called it Scarabaeus blackburnii; it is nw called Geotrupes blackburnii.[18] Thomas Pennant A pinned black beetle specimen on white background Geotrupes blackburnii, named after Blackburne by Johan Fabricius The naturalist Thomas Pennant, who had been aware of Blackburne and her collections through correspondence with Forster since at least 1768, visited Orford Hall in May 1772.[15] He later described the visit in his 1774 book, A Tour in Scotland, and Voyage to the Hebrides, where he praised John Blackburne's botanical collections and noted about Anna, "Mrs. Blackburne his daughter extends her researches still farther, and adds to her empire another kingdom; not content with the botanic, she causes North America to be explored for its animals, and has formed a museum from the other side of the Atlantic, as pleasing as it is instructive."[36][15] Pennant studied the collection of birds that Blackburne's brother Ashton had sent to her from America, which resulted in him including more than a hundred species of birds from Ne York alone in his book Arctic Zoology.[15][37] The book's preface contained extensive thanks to the Blackburnes for their contribution:[15] To the rich museum of American Birds, preserved by Mrs. Anna Blackburn, of Orford, near Warrington, I am indebted for the opporunity of describing almost every one known in the provinces of Jersey, NeYork, and Connecticut. They were sent over to that lady by her brother the late Mr. Ashton Blackburn; who added to the skill and zeal of a sportsman, the most pertinent remarks on the specimens he collected for his worthy and philosophical sister. — Thomas Pennant, Arctic Zoology, 1784[38] Pennant named the Blackburnian warbler in honour of Anna Blackburne.[39] In 1975, V. P. Wystrach determined that sixteen or seventeen of the bird species accepted by the American Ornithologists' Union were originally described by Pennant from skins sent by Ashton Blackburne to Anna.[40] Other than birds, Pennant acknowledged the Blackburne museum as the source for the descriptions of a mammal, a salamander, 3 species of fish, and 52 insects, also within Arctic Zoology.[22] Pennant did not, however, acknowledge Blackburne's contributions in his autobiography.[22] Bird with orange throat, black spot near the eye, feathers in shades of grey, sitting on a branch Blackburnian warbler Other naturalists The German naturalist Peter Simon Pallas corresponded with Pennant during his career. He lived in St. Petersburg and had collected natural history specimens during an expedition to Siberia.[32] Pennant likely introduced Pallas to Blackburne, and the two started exchanging specimens in 1778.[41] They exchanged mostly plants, preserved birds, and minerals, but also other animals, including a young musk deer that Blackburne obtained from Pallas in 1779.[41] Some of the exchanges were mediated by the publisher Benjamin White.[18][42] At some point between 1771 and 1779, Blackburne also became acquainted with the naturalist Joseph Banks, who also served as an intermediary between her and Pallas, and with botanist Daniel Solander as well.[42][43] The naturalist Emanuel Mendes da Costa was also in contact with Blackburne and offered to catalogue her collection of minerals. Possibly because of his previous misappropriation of Royal Society funds, Blackburne did not employ him although she did express interest.[42] Museum, death, and legacy Painting of a bird in a raspberry plant, with wood lice visible on the plant and a pupa on the ground Eurasian wren, raspberry, wood lice and pupa from the Natural History Cabinet of Anna Blackburne, by James Bolton Anna Blackburne had an extensive collection of natural history specimens.[44][9] She had a herbarium, a collection of 470 birds and one bat preserved by taxidermy, specimens of insects, corals and shells, as wellann Reinhold Forster (22 October 1729 – 9 December 1798) was a German Reformed (Calvinist) pastor[1][2] and naturalist of partially Scottish descent who made contributions to the early ornithology of Europe and North America. He is best known as the naturalist on James Cook's second Pacific voyage, where he was accompanied by his son Georg Forster. These expeditions promoted the career of Johann Reinhold Forster and the findings became the bedrock of colonial professionalism and helped set the stage for the future development of anthropology and ethnology. They also laid the framework for general concern about the impact that alteration of the physical environment for European economic expansion would have on exotic societies.[3] Biography Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster in Tahiti, by John Francis Rigaud, 1780 Title page of Observations Made during a Voyage orld (G. Robinson, 1778) Forster's family originated in the Lords Forrester in Scotland, from where his grat-grandfather had emigrated after losing most of his property during the rule of Oliver Cromwell along with many other Scots. Forster himself was born in the city of Dirschau (Tczew) in the Crown of Poland.[4] He studied languages and natural history at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, theology at the University of Halle, afterwards serving as a Protestant pastor in Mokry Dwór (Nassenhuben) Pomeranian Voivodship. He married his cousin Elisabeth Nikolai. They had several children including a son, Georg Forster and a daughter Virginia Viktoria.[5] In 1765 he accepted an ofer made to him by the Russian government to inspect and report upon the ne colonies founded on the banks of the Volga, in the province of Saratov.[6] His irritable temper soo involved him in difficulties with the Russian government, and in the following year he went with Georg (the eldest of eight children, seven of which survived childhood) to England and became teacher of natural history at Warrington, Lancashire.[7] He spent three years teaching at the Dissenting Warrington Academy, succeeding Joseph Priestley. Compelled by his violent temper to resign this appointment, Forster then moved with his son to London, where they earned a precarious living by doing translations.[6] In 1771, he published A Catalogue of the Animals of North America,[8] which listed the region's mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, arachnids, and crustaceans,[9] and led to his election to the Royal Society of London in 1772.[10] When Joseph Banks withdrew at the last moment as naturalist on Cook's second voyage, Forster and his son were appointed to fill the vacant position. In July 1772 they set sail on the Resolution, returning to England in July 1775. During a sop in Cape Town, Forster engaged Anders Sparrman to ct as his assistant. Both the Forsters kept detailed diaries of everything they saw on the voyage, and made extensive collections of both natural history specimens and artefacts. The first publication after the voyage was Characteres generum plantarum, a book on the botany of the South Pacific. Based on his father's journals, Georg published A Voyage Rounm the book was insufficient to clear his debts, and the bulk of Georg's drawings from the voyage had to be sold to Joseph Banks. During the next few years Forster undertook a variety of writing work, including a German translation of Thomas Pennant's Arctic Zoology. Johann Reinhold’s "Observations Made During a Voyage s of a linear hierarchy that naturally ascends towards the white European ideal."[12] In November 1779 Forster was appointed Professor of Natural history and Mineralogy at the University of Halle, and director of the Botanische Garten der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, where he remained until his death. His Descriptiones animalium, completed within a month of returning to England with Cook, was eventually edited by Hinrich Lichtenstein and published in 1844.[13] Forster's contributions to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1772–73) on zoology, ornithology, and ichthyology established him as one of the earliest authorities on North American zoology. Forster was elected a meber of the American Philosophical Society in 1793.[14]mes Cook FRS (7 November 1728[NB 1] – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, cartographer and naval officer famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to Ne Zealand and Australia in particular. He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of ew Zealand. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw ation in the Seven Years' War and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec, which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment for the direction of British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1768 as commander of HMS Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages. In these voyages, Cook sailed thousads of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from Ne Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers. He surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions. In 1779, during Cook's third exploratory voyage in the Pacific, tensions escalated between his men and the natives of Hawaii, and an attempt to kidnap chief KalaniʻōpuÊ»u led to Cook's death. Whilst there is controversy over Cook's role at the forefront of British colonialism and the violence associated with his contacts with indigenous peoples, he left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. Early lie and family James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 (NS) in the village of Marton in the North Riding of Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November (N.S.) in the parish church of St Cuthbert, where his nae can be seen in the church register.[1][2] He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his locally born wif, Grace Pace (1702–1765), from Thornaby-on-Tees.[1][3][4] In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Grat Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years' schooling, he began work for his father, who had been promoted to farm manager. Despite not being formally educated he became capable in mathematics, astronomy and charting by the time of his Endeavour voyage.[5] For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the oppotunity for solitude.[6] Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last hoe, which he is likely to have visited, is nw in Melbourne, Australia, having been moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick, in 1934.[7] In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles (32 km) to the fishing village of Staithes, to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson.[1] Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.[4] After 18 months, not proving suited for shop work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker.[7] The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade. Their house is nw the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy – al skills he would need one day to command his own ship.[4] Elizabeth Cook, wie and for 56 years widow of James Cook, by William Henderson, 1830 His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he son progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship.[8] In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War. Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.[9] Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts, keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping[10] and one of his mentors, on 21 December 1762 at St Margaret's Church, Barking, Essex.[11] The couple had six children: James (1763–1794), Nathaniel (1764–1780, lost aboard HMS Thunderer which foundered with al hands in a hurricane in the West Indies), Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772) and Hugh (1776–1793, who died of scarlet fever while a student at Christ's College, Cambridge). When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London. He attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised. Cook has no direct descendants – ll of his children died before having children of their own.[12] Start of Royal Navy career Further information: Grat Britain in the Seven Years' War Cook's first posting was with HMS Eagle, serving as able seaman and master's mate under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter.[13] In October and November 1755, he took part in Eagle's capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties.[9] His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of Cruizer, a small cutter attached to Eagle while on patrol.[9][14] In June 1757 Cook formally passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.[15] He then joined the frigate HMS Solebay as master under Captain Robert Craig.[16] Newfoundland During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rae Navy vessel HMS Pembroke.[17] With others in Pembroke's crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759. Throughout his service he demonstrated a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, thus allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack during the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham.[18] Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s, aboard HMS Grenville. He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. At this time, Cook employed local pilots to point out the "rocks and hdden dangers" along the south and west coasts. During the 1765 season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast west of "Grat St Lawrence", Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay, John Dawson forConnaigre and Hermitage Bay, and John Peck for the "Bay of Despair".[19] While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the sun on 5 August 1766. By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England it was possible to calculate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767.[20] His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island's coasts and were the first scientific, large scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines.[21] They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's maps were used into the 20th century, with copies being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland's waters for 200 years.[22] Following on from his exertions in Newfoundland, Cook wrote that he intended to go not oly "farther than any man has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go".[15] First voyage (1768–1771) Main article: First voyage of James Cook On 25 May 1768,[23] the Admiralty commissioned Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean. The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun which, when combined with observations from other places, would help to determine the distance of the Earth from the Sun.[24] Cook, at age 39, was promoted to lieutenant to grant him sufficient status to take the command.[25][26] For its part, the Royal Society agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea gratuity in addition to his Naval pay.[27] The expedition sailed aboard HMS Endeavour, departing England on 26 August 1768.[28] Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the transit were made.[29] However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders, which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of Terra Australis.[30] Cook then sailed to Nw Zealand where he mapped the complete coastline, making ony some minor errors. With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to communicate with the Māori.[31] However, at least eight Māori were killed in violent encounters.[32] Cook then voyaged west, reaching the southeastern coast of Australia near tday's Point Hicks on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.[NB 2] Cook landing at Botany Bay (Kamay) On 23 April, he made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal: "... and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not."[33] Endeavour continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight with Cook charting and naming landmarks as he went. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the continent at a beach nw known as Silver Beach on Botany Bay (Kamay Botany Bay National Park). Two Gweagal men of the Dharawal / Eora nation opposed their landing and in the confrontation one of them was shot and wounded.[34][35][36] Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, collecting water, timber, fodder and botanical specimens and exploring the surrounding area. Cook sought to establish relations with the Indigenous population without sucess.[37][38] At first Cook named the inlet "Sting-Ray Harbour" after the many stingrays found there. This was later changed to "Botanist Bay" and finally Botany Bay after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander.[39] This first landing site was later to be promoted (particularly by Joseph Banks) as a suitable candidate for situating a settlement and British colonial outpost.[40] Endeavour replica in Cooktown, Queensland harbour – anchored where the original Endeavour was beached for seven weeks in 1770 After his departure from Botany Bay, he continued northwards. He stopped at Bustard Bay (nw known as Seventeen Seventy) on 23 May 1770. On 24 May, Cook and Banks and others went ashore. Continuing north, on 11 June a mishap occurred when Endeavour ran aground on a shoal of the Grat Barrier Reef, and then "nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770".[41] The ship was badly damaged, and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the docks of modern Cooktown, Queensland, at the mouth of the Endeavour River).[4] The crew's encounters with the local Aboriginal people were mostly peaceful, although following a dispute over green turtles Cook ordered shots to be fired and one local was lightly wounded.[42] The voyage then continued and at about midday on 22 August 1770, they reached the northernmost tip of the coast and, without leaving the ship, Cook named it York Cape (nw Cape York).[43] Leaving the east coast, Cook turned west and nursed his battered ship through the dangerously shallow waters of Torres Strait. Searching for a vantage point, Cook saw a steep hill on a nearby island from the top of which he hoped to see "a passage into the Indian Seas". Cook named the island Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory.[44] Return to England Cook returned to England via Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where many in his crew succumbed to malaria, and then the Cape of Good Hope, arriving at the island of Saint Helena on 30 April 1771.[45] The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in The Downs, with Cook going to Dal.[46] Interlude Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero.[4] Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage. Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage.[47] Second voyage (1772–1775) Portrait of James Cook by William Hodges, who accompanied Cook on his second voyage Main article: Second voyage of James Cook Shortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted in August 1771 to the rank of commander.[48][49] In 1772, he was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating Nw Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south. Despite this evidence to the contrary, Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist.[50] Cook commanded HMS Resolution on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, HMS Adventure. Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773. In the Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his way to Nw Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.[15] Illustration from the 1815 edition of Cook's Voyages, depicting Cook watching a huan sacrifice in Tahiti c. 1773 Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage, he brought a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage to Nw Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, Ne Caledonia, and Vanuatu. Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed, mapped, and took possession for Britain of South Georgia, which had been explored by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ("Sandwich Land"). He then turned north to South Africa and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return ome put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.[51] James Cook's 1777 South-Up map of South Georgia, which he named after King George III Cook's second voyage marked a successful employment of Larcum Kendall's K1 copy of John Harrison's H4 marine chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century.[52] Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital. He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an oportunity for active duty should arise.[53] His fame extended beyond the Admiralty; he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley old Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy.[54] Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; he was described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe".[15] But he could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned, and Cook volunteered to find the Northwest Passage. He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voya as fossils, ores, and minerals.[5][20] She also owned drawings of her specimens: the illustrator James Bolton made several watercolours and gouaches from objects in her collection.[45] After her father's death, Blackburne moved in 1787 from Orford Hall to nearby Fairfield Hall, which was built for her with a room designed to house her collections.[46] The room was 15 yards (14 m) long, as wide as the entire front of the house.[20][47] She also had plans for a botanical garden, but was unable to carry these plans out due to health issues.[2] She died on 30 December 1793, and was buried in the churchyard of St Oswald's Church, Winwick.[2] Her collection was inherited by her nephew John Blackburne, who moved selected parts of the collection to his seat at Hale Hall.[47][48] A crater on Venus has been named "Blackburne" in her honour since 1994.[49] The Blackburne crater is situated at 11.0°N, 183.9°E and has a diameter of 30.1 km.[50] Grand Event brought to you by Inception Media, LLC. 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