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[GET INSTANT ACCESS HERE]( The Roman Empirea was the postRepublican state of ancient Rome It is generally understood to mean the period and territory ruled by the Romans following Octavians assumption of sole rule under the Principate in 27 BC It included territories in Europe North Africa and Western Asia and was ruled by emperors The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD conventionally marks the end of classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages Rome had expanded its rule to most of the Mediterranean and beyond However it was severely destabilized in civil wars and political conflicts which culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt In 27 BC the Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching power imperium and the new title of Augustus marking his accession as the first Roman emperor of a monarchy with Rome as its sole capital The vast Roman territories were organized in senatorial and imperial provinces The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana lit Roman Peace Rome reached its greatest territorial expanse under Trajan r98117 AD a period of increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus 180192 In the 3rd century the Empire underwent a crisis that threatened its existence as the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires broke away from the Roman state and a series of shortlived emperors led the Empire It was reunified under Aurelian r 270275 Diocletian set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West in 286 Christians rose to power in the 4th century after the Edict of Milan The imperial seat moved from Rome to Byzantium in 330 renamed Constantinople after Constantine the Great The Migration Period involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 AD by Odoacer the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital until the citys fall in 1453f Due to the Empires extent and endurance its institutions and culture had a lasting influence on the development of language religion art architecture literature philosophy law and forms of government across its territories Latin evolved into the Romance languages while Medieval Greek became the language of the East The Empires adoption of Christianity resulted in the formation of medieval Christendom Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance Romes architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture influencing Islamic architecture The rediscovery of classical science and technology which formed the basis for Islamic science in medieval Europe contributed to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution Many modern legal systems such as the Napoleonic Code descend from Roman law On the other hand Romes republican institutions have influenced the Italian citystate republics of the medieval period the early United States and modern democratic republics History Main article History of the Roman Empire For a chronological guide see Timeline of Roman history See also Campaign history of the Roman military and Roman Kingdom Duration 39 seconds039 Animated overview of the Roman territorial history from the Roman Republic until the fall of its last remnant the Byzantine Empire in 1453 Transition from Republic to Empire Further information Roman Republic Augustus of Prima Porta Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC though not outside the Italian peninsula until the 3rd century BC Thus it was an empire a great power long before it had an emperor20 The Republic was not a nationstate in the modern sense but a network of selfruled towns with varying degrees of independence from the Senate and provinces administered by military commanders It was governed by annually elected magistrates Roman consuls above all in conjunction with the Senate21 The 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval which ultimately led to rule by emperors222324 The consuls military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium meaning command though typically in a military sense25 Occasionally successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator commander this is the origin of the word emperor since this title was always bestowed to the early emperors26 Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts conspiracies and civil wars from the late second century BC see Crisis of the Roman Republic while greatly extending its power beyond Italy In 44 BC Julius Caesar was briefly dictator before being assassinated The faction of his assassins was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by Mark Antony and Caesars adopted son Octavian Antony and Octavians division of the Roman world did not last and Octavians forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC In 27 BC the Senate made Octavian princeps first citizen with proconsular imperium thus beginning the Principate the first epoch of Roman imperial history usually dated from 27 BC to 284 AD and gave him the title Augustus the venerated Although the republic stood in name Augustus had all meaningful authority27 Since his rule began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity he was so loved that he came to hold the power of a monarch de facto if not de jure During the years of his rule a new constitutional order emerged in part organically and in part by design so that upon his death this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperorcitation needed Pax Romana Main article Pax Romana The socalled Five Good Emperors of 96180 AD Nerva r 9698 Trajan r 98117 Hadrian r 117138 Antoninus Pius r 138161 Marcus Aurelius r 161180 The 200 years that began with Augustuss rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana Roman Peace The cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent and put down mercilessly and swiftly28 The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs The JulioClaudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius Caligula Claudius and Nero—before it yielded in 69 AD to the strifetorn Year of the Four Emperors from which Vespasian emerged as victor Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty followed by the NervaAntonine dynasty which produced the Five Good Emperors Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aureliuscitation needed Transition from Classical to Late Antiquity Main articles Later Roman Empire and Fall of the Western Roman Empire See also Barbarian kingdoms and Byzantine Empire The Barbarian Invasions consisted of the movement of mainly ancient Germanic peoples into Roman territory Historically this event marked the transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages In the view of contemporary Greek historian Cassius Dio the accession of Commodus in 180 marked the descent from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron29 a comment which has led some historians notably Edward Gibbon to take Commodus reign as the beginning of the Empires decline3031 In 212 during the reign of Caracalla Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire The Severan dynasty was tumultuous an emperors reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution and following its collapse the Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century a period of invasions civil strife economic disorder and plague32 In defining historical epochs this crisis sometimes marks the transition from Classical to Late Antiquity Aurelian r 270275 stabilised the empire militarily and Diocletian reorganised and restored much of it in 28533 Diocletians reign brought the empires most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity the Great Persecutioncitation needed Diocletian divided the empire into four regions each ruled by a separate tetrarch34 Confident that he fixed the disorder plaguing Rome he abdicated along with his coemperor but the Tetrarchy collapsed shortly after Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties the empire was divided along an eastwest axis with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome Julian who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors Theodosius I the last emperor to rule over both East and West died in 395 after making Christianity the state religion35 The Roman Empire by 476 noting western and eastern divisions The administrative divisions of the Roman Empire in 395 AD Fall in the West and survival in the East The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders most famously Attila36 but the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself37 Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer383940 Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole emperor and placing himself as Zenos nominal subordinate In reality Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone383941 The Eastern Roman Empire called the Byzantine Empire by later historians continued until the reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos The last Roman emperor died in battle in 1453 against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim a connection to the Empire42 Geography and demography Main articles Demography of the Roman Empire and Borders of the Roman Empire Further information Classical demography The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history with contiguous territories throughout Europe North Africa and the Middle East43 The Latin phrase imperium sine fine empire without end44 expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire In Virgils Aeneid limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by Jupiter45 This claim of universal dominion was renewed when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th centuryg In addition to annexing large regions the Romans directly altered their geography for example cutting down entire forests47 Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century when Roman control in Europe Africa and Asia was strengthened Under Augustus a global map of the known world was displayed for the first time in public at Rome coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive political geography that survives from antiquity the Geography of Strabo48 When Augustus died the account of his achievements Res Gestae prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the Empire49 Geography alongside meticulous written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration50 A segment of the ruins of Hadrians Wall in northern England overlooking Crag Lough The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan r 9811751 encompassing 5 million square kilometres1516 The traditional population estimate of 5560 million inhabitants52 accounted for between onesixth and onefourth of the worlds total population53 and made it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid19th century54 Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak from 70 million to more than 100 million55 Each of the three largest cities in the Empire Rome Alexandria and Antioch was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century56 As the historian Christopher Kelly described it Then the empire stretched from Hadrians Wall in drizzlesoaked northern England to the sunbaked banks of the Euphrates in Syria from the great RhineDanube river system which snaked across the fertile flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt The empire completely circled the Mediterranean referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum—our sea52 Trajans successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire Borders fines were marked and the frontiers limites patrolled51 The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable23 Hadrians Wall which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an everpresent barbarian threat is the primary surviving monument of this effort57 Languages Main article Languages of the Roman Empire See also Jireček Line Latin and Greek were the main languages of the Empireh but the Empire was deliberately multilingual62 Andrew WallaceHadrill says The main desire of the Roman government was to make itself understood63 At the start of the Empire knowledge of Greek was useful to pass as educated nobility and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military government or law64 Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two languages65 Latin and Greeks mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic66 Latin words incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era especially for military administration and trade and commerce matters67 Greek grammar literature poetry and philosophy shaped Latin language and culture6869 A 5thcentury papyrus showing a parallel LatinGreek text of a speech by Cicero70 There was never a legal requirement for Latin in the Empire but it represented a certain status71 High standards of Latin Latinitas started with the advent of Latin literature72 Due to the flexible language policy of the Empire a natural competition of language emerged that spurred Latinitas to defend Latin against the stronger cultural influence of Greek73 Over time Latin usage was used to project power and a higher social class7475 Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons a rule that first started during the Punic Wars76 Different emperors up until Justinian would attempt to require the use of Latin in various sections of the administration but there is no evidence that a linguistic imperialism existed during the early Empire77 After all freeborn inhabitants were universally enfranchised in 212 many Roman citizens would have lacked a knowledge of Latin78 The wide use of Koine Greek was what enabled the spread of Christianity and reflects its role as the lingua franca of the Mediterranean during the time of the Empire79 Following Diocletians reforms in the 3rd century CE there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west80 Spoken Latin later fragmented into the incipient romance languages in the 7th century CE following the collapse of the Empires west81 The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite obscure the continuity of other spoken languages within the Empire82 Latin referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages8384 References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages particularly in Egypt with Coptic and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic Gaulish and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding of laws and oaths85 In Africa LibycoBerber and Punic were used in inscriptions into the 2nd century82 In Syria Palmyrene soldiers used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions an exception to the rule that Latin was the language of the military86 The last reference to Gaulish was between 560 and 5758788 The emergent GalloRomance languages would then be shaped by Gaulish89 ProtoBasque or Aquitanian evolved with Latin loan words to modern Basque90 The Thracian language as were several nowextinct languages in Anatolia are attested in Imperialera inscriptions7982 Gate of Domitian and Trajan at the northern entrance of the Temple of Hathor and Roman emperor Domitian as Pharaoh of Egypt on the same gate together with Egyptian hieroglyphs91 Society Further information Ancient Roman society A multigenerational banquet depicted on a wall painting from Pompeii 1st century AD The Empire was remarkably multicultural with astonishing cohesive capacity to create shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples92 Public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums amphitheatres racetracks and baths—helped foster a sense of Romanness93 Roman society had multiple overlapping social hierarchies94 The civil war preceding Augustus caused upheaval95 but did not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power From the perspective of the lower classes a peak was merely added to the social pyramid96 Personal relationships—patronage friendship amicitia family marriage—continued to influence politics97 By the time of Nero however it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator98 The blurring of the Republics more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility99 both upward and downward to a greater extent than all other welldocumented ancient societies100 Women freedmen and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them101 Social life particularly for those whose personal resources were limited was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities collegia and sodalitates professional and trade guilds veterans groups religious sodalities drinking and dining clubs102 performing troupes103 and burial societies104 Legal status Main articles Status in Roman legal system and Roman citizenship According to the jurist Gaius the essential distinction in the Roman law of persons was that all humans were either free liberi or slaves servi105 The legal status of free persons was further defined by their citizenship Most citizens held limited rights such as the ius Latinum Latin right but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by noncitizens Free people not considered citizens but living within the Roman world were peregrini nonRomans106 In 212 the Constitutio Antoniniana extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire This legal egalitarianism required a farreaching revision of existing laws that distinguished between citizens and noncitizens107 Women in Roman law Main article Women in ancient Rome Left Fresco of an auburn maiden reading a text Pompeian Fourth Style 6079 AD Pompeii Italy Right Bronze statuette 1st century AD of a young woman reading based on a Hellenistic original Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens but did not vote hold political office or serve in the military A mothers citizen status determined that of her children as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos children born of two Roman citizensi A Roman woman kept her own family name nomen for life Children most often took the fathers name with some exceptions110 Women could own property enter contracts and engage in business111 Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works an indication they could hold considerable fortunes112 The archaic manus marriage in which the woman was subject to her husbands authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage Technically she remained under her fathers legal authority even though she moved into her husbands home but when her father died she became legally emancipated113 This arrangement was a factor in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed compared to many other cultures up to the modern period114 although she had to answer to her father in legal matters she was free of his direct scrutiny in daily life115 and her husband had no legal power over her116 Although it was a point of pride to be a oneman woman univira who had married only once there was little stigma attached to divorce nor to speedy remarriage after being widowed or divorced117 Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will118 A mothers right to own and dispose of property including setting the terms of her will gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood119 Dressing of a priestess or bride Roman fresco from Herculaneum Italy 3040 AD As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order moral legislation attempted to regulate conduct as a means of promoting family values Adultery was criminalized120 and defined broadly as an illicit sex act stuprum between a male citizen and a married woman or between a married woman and any man other than her husband That is a double standard was in place a married woman could have sex only with her husband but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute or person of marginalized status121 Childbearing was encouraged a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom the ius trium liberorum122 Slaves and the law Main article Slavery in ancient Rome At the time of Augustus as many as 35% of the people in Roman Italy were slaves123 making Rome one of five historical slave societies in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economyj123 Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility124 In urban settings slaves might be professionals such as teachers physicians chefs and accountants the majority of slaves provided trained or unskilled labour Agriculture and industry such as milling and mining relied on the exploitation of slaves Outside Italy slaves were on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces125 Although slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries it remained an integral part of Roman society until gradually ceasing in the 6th and 7th centuries with the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy126 Slave holding writing tablets for his master relief from a 4thcentury sarcophagus Laws pertaining to slavery were extremely intricate127 Slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens sexual exploitation torture and summary execution A slave could not as a matter of law be raped a slaves rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law128 Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium but their unions were sometimes recognized129 Technically a slave could not own property130 but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual fund peculium that he could use depending on the degree of trust and cooperation between owner and slave131 Within a household or workplace a hierarchy of slaves might exist with one slave acting as the master of others132 Talented slaves might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom or be manumitted for services rendered Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law Lex Fufia Caninia limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will133 Following the Servile Wars of the Republic legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups and for hunting down fugitive slaves134 Over time slaves gained increased legal protection including the right to file complaints against their masters A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves135 The burgeoning trade in eunuchs in the late 1st century prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will for lust or gain136 The city was viewed as fostering civilization by being properly designed ordered and adorned274 Augustus undertook a vast building programme in Rome supported public displays of art that expressed imperial ideology and reorganized the city into neighbourhoods vici administered at the local level with police and firefighting services275 A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius an open area outside the city centre the Altar of Augustan Peace Ara Pacis Augustae was located there as was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer gnomon of a horologium With its public gardens the Campus was among the most attractive places in Rome to visit275 City planning and urban lifestyles was influenced by the Greeks early on276 and in the Eastern Empire Roman rule shaped the development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character Cities such as Athens Aphrodisias Ephesus and Gerasa tailored city planning and architecture to imperial ideals while expressing their individual identity and regional preeminence277 In areas inhabited by Celticspeaking peoples Rome encouraged the development of urban centres with stone temples forums monumental fountains and amphitheatres often on or near the sites of preexisting walled settlements known as oppida278279q Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic coastal cities252 Aquae Sulis in Bath England architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction The network of cities coloniae municipia civitates or in Greek terms poleis was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana184 Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries were encouraged to inculcate the habits of peacetime281 As the classicist Clifford Ando noted Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culturepublic cult and its games and civic banquets competitions for artists speakers and athletes as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of artwere financed by private individuals whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges282 Public toilets latrinae from Ostia Antica In the city of Rome most people lived in multistory apartment buildings insulae that were often squalid firetraps Public facilitiessuch as baths thermae toilets with running water latrinae basins or elaborate fountains nymphea delivering fresh water279 and largescale entertainments such as chariot races and gladiator combatwere aimed primarily at the common people283 Similar facilities were constructed in cities throughout the Empire and some of the bestpreserved Roman structures are in Spain southern France and northern Africacitation needed The public baths served hygienic social and cultural functions284 Bathing was the focus of daily socializing285 Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures with amenities that might include an exercise room sauna exfoliation spa ball court or outdoor swimming pool Baths had hypocaust heating the floors were suspended over hotair channels286 Public baths were part of urban culture throughout the provinces but in the late 4th century individual tubs began to replace communal bathingƒ Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene287 Reconstructed peristyle garden based on the House of the Vettii Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses a townhouse domus and at least one luxury home villa outside the city The domus was a privately owned singlefamily house and might be furnished with a private bath balneum286 but it was not a place to retreat from public life288 Although some neighbourhoods show a higher concentration of such houses they were not segregated enclaves The domus was meant to be visible and accessible The atrium served as a reception hall in which the paterfamilias head of household met with clients every morning275 It was a centre of family religious rites containing a shrine and images of family ancestors289 The houses were located on busy public roads and groundlevel spaces were often rented out as shops tabernae290 In addition to a kitchen gardenwindowboxes might substitute in the insulaetownhouses typically enclosed a peristyle garden291 The villa by contrast was an escape from the city and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances intellectual and artistic interests otium with an appreciation of nature and agriculture292 Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista carefully framed by the architectural design293 It might be located on a working estate or in a resort town on the seacoastcitation needed Augustus programme of urban renewal and the growth of Romes population to as many as one million was accompanied by nostalgia for rural life Poetry idealized the lives of farmers and shepherds Interior decorating often featured painted gardens fountains landscapes vegetative ornament293 and animals rendered accurately enough to be identified by species294 On a more practical level the central government took an active interest in supporting agriculture295 Producing food was the priority of land use296 Larger farms latifundia achieved an economy of scale that sustained urban life295 Small farmers benefited from the development of local markets in towns and trade centres Agricultural   [mini logotype]   Note: Sometimes, colleagues of Golden Gate Marketers share special offers with us that we think our readers should be made aware of. 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